In addition, the planting of chemically treated seeds negatively affects beneficial plant fungal endophytes, involved in plant growth and development thereby reducing early plant growth (Vasanthakumari et al. 2021), and soil beneficial microorganisms (Nettles et al. 2021) development of different forms of human cancer (AGRICAN 2020) and negative effects on non-target organisms such as bees (Rundlof et al. 2020) risk exposure to operators that treat seeds or handle treated seeds (White and Hoppin 2004 Han et al. This is because of the poor efficacy or inconsistent effectiveness of chemical seed treatments in controlling seed- and soil-borne pests (Rossman et al. The routine-based planting of chemically treated seeds has raised several socio-economic, human health, and environmental concerns. We conclude that biological seed treatments may represent a sustainable solution to feed the increasing global populations while avoiding negative effects on human health and ensuring environmental sustainability.

Our meta-analysis encompassing 396 studies worldwide reveals for the first time that biological seed treatments significantly improve seed germination (7☖%), seedling emergence (91±5%), plant biomass (53±5%), disease control (55☑%), and crop yield (21☒%) compared to untreated seeds across contrasted crop groups, target pathogens, climatic regions, and experimental conditions. However, no study has yet quantified the effectiveness of biological seed treatments to enhance crop performance and yield. There is increasing interest in biological seed treatments as alternatives to chemical seed treatments as the latter have several negative human health and environmental impacts. Seeds are most often treated before their planting with both chemical and biological agents/products to secure good seed quality and high yield by reducing or preventing losses caused by diseases. The current global seed market is worth USD 60 billion that is expected to reach USD 80 billion by 2025. Seeds are a vector of genetic progress and, as such, they play a significant role in the sustainability of the agri-food system.

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